GPLUS PHARMACY BLOG

WHAT IS GPAT AND WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT SUBJECTS AND EXAMINATION DETAIL?

The National Testing Agency (NTA) conducts the Gpat exam for admission to M.PHARMA or equivalent courses. The scores are accepted by 800 participating institutes and the All India Council of Technical Education( AICTE) approved Institutions and Universities,approx. 50,000 candidates take the test every year. Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test ( GPAT ) is one of the entrance exams conducted by the NTA. The Gpat exams are conducted in english only. The duration of the Gpat exam is 3hrs. The total number of objective type question are 125. Each question carries 4 marks. A total of 4 marks will be awarded for each correct response. The paper is divided into several subjects such as pharmaceutical science, physical chemistry, pharmacognosy, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, organic chemistry, and pharmaceutical management.

EXAM DATE:

Availability of application forms: 13^th, February 2023.

Last Date of the application forms: 6^th, March 2023.

Starting of Application Correction: 7^th – 9^th, March 2023.
 
EXAMINATION DATE TO BE ANNOUNCED LATER

GPAT EXAM IS LIKELY TO BE HELD ON 22^nd MAY, 2023 AS PER NTA .

(The National Testing Agency (NTA) has published the exam schedule for Common Management Admission Test (CMAT) and Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (GPAT) 2023. CMAT is scheduled for May 4, 2023, and GPAT is scheduled for May 22, 2023.)

IMPORTANT BOOKS NAME FOR EACH SUBJECT. 

i) Biochemistry by Lehninger or by Satyanarayan

ii) Health Education and Community Pharmacy for 1st  year diploma by N.S Parmar

iii) Advance Organic Chemistry: reaction mechanism & structure by Jerry March

iv) Physical Chemistry by Dr R.R Misra 

v) Pharmaceutics by Aulton

vi) Instrumental methods of Chemical Analysis by B.K.Sarma

vii) Industrial Microbiology by Cascida 

viii) Textbook of Pharmacognosy by K.Kokale

HOW TO SCORE GOOD MARKS IN GPAT?

As a part of the GPAT preperation, candidates should set themselves a schedule. This will enable them to complete the syllabus 2 months before the exam. Aspirants who are serious about cracking the GPAT exam must prepare a strategy in advance because based on merit admission is given to students, as there is high level of competition. one should have to study for atleast 4-4.5 hours everyday to gain capability on each subjects. So to score good marks and to crack your exam you can join GPLUS EDUCATION which is the best Institute in Kolkata for GPAT. 

HOW TO SCORE GOOD IN GPAT IN SHORT PERIOD OF TIME?

Scoring well in GPAT (Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test) requires a combination of knowledge, strategy, and practice. Here are some tips to help you prepare for the exam in a short period of time:

1. Understand the exam pattern and syllabus: Start by understanding the GPAT exam pattern, the number of questions, the time allotted for each section, and the marking scheme. Also, go through the GPAT syllabus and focus on the topics that carry more weightage.

2. Create a study plan: Create a study plan that covers all the topics in the syllabus and allocates sufficient time for each section. Make sure to include breaks in your study plan to avoid burnout.

3. Focus on key concepts: Focus on understanding the key concepts and their application rather than just memorizing them. This will help you to solve questions easily and quickly.

4. Practice previous year question papers: Practice previous year question papers to get an idea about the type of questions asked in the exam. This will also help you to identify your weak areas and focus on improving them.

5. Take mock tests: Taking mock tests will help you to assess your preparation level and identify areas where you need more practice. Analyze your performance in mock tests and work on improving your speed and accuracy.

6. Stay motivated: Stay motivated throughout your preparation and keep reminding yourself of your goals. Stay positive and believe in yourself.

Remember that GPAT is a competitive exam, and it requires consistent effort and dedication to score well. Keep practicing and stay focused on your goal, and you will be able to achieve success. Good luck!

WHAT IS THE MINIMUM CUT-OFF FOR NIPER ADMISSION?

The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) has different cutoff scores for each program, and it varies each year depending on various factors such as the number of applicants, the difficulty level of the exam, and the availability of seats. The cutoff scores are announced by NIPER after the declaration of the result.

However, as a general guideline, candidates should aim to score above 90 percentile to have a good chance of getting admission to their preferred program at NIPER. It's important to note that meeting the cutoff score alone does not guarantee admission, as NIPER also considers other factors such as academic background, work experience, and performance in the interview for admission.

It's always advisable to aim for a higher score to increase the chances of admission and to be well prepared for the exam by studying the syllabus thoroughly and practicing previous year question papers.

WHAT IS THE MINIMUM CUT-OFF FOR NIPER MOHALI ADMISSION?

The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) Mohali offers admission to various postgraduate programs such as M.S. (Pharm.), M.Pharm., M.Tech. (Pharm.), MBA (Pharm.) and Ph.D. The cutoff scores for each program are different and are announced by NIPER after the declaration of the result.

As a general guideline, to have a good chance of getting admission to any of the programs offered by NIPER Mohali, candidates should aim to score above 90 percentile. However, meeting the cutoff score alone does not guarantee admission, as NIPER also considers other factors such as academic background, work experience, and performance in the interview for admission.

It's always advisable to aim for a higher score to increase the chances of admission and to be well prepared for the exam by studying the syllabus thoroughly and practicing previous year question papers.

HOW TO PREPARE FOR GPAT FROM 1ST YEAR?

Starting your GPAT (Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test) preparation from the first year of your pharmacy course can be beneficial as it provides you ample time to cover all the topics in the syllabus and practice thoroughly. Here are some tips to help you prepare for GPAT from your first year:

1. Understand the exam pattern and syllabus: Start by understanding the GPAT exam pattern, the number of questions, the time allotted for each section, and the marking scheme. Also, go through the GPAT syllabus and focus on the topics that carry more weightage.

2. Study regularly: Make it a habit to study regularly and cover the topics taught in class. This will help you to understand the concepts better and retain the knowledge for a longer period.

3. Read standard textbooks: Read standard textbooks recommended by your professors to understand the concepts in-depth. You can also refer to other reference books and study materials for more clarity.

4. Take notes: Make notes of important concepts, formulas, and definitions to revise them quickly during the last minute of the exam.

5. Practice previous year question papers: Practice previous year question papers to get an idea about the type of questions asked in the exam. This will also help you to identify your weak areas and focus on improving them.

6. Take mock tests: Taking mock tests will help you to assess your preparation level and identify areas where you need more practice. Analyze your performance in mock tests and work on improving your speed and accuracy.

7. Stay motivated: Stay motivated throughout your preparation and keep reminding yourself of your goals. Stay positive and believe in yourself.

Remember that GPAT is a competitive exam, and it requires consistent effort and dedication to score well. Keep practicing and stay focused on your goal, and you will be able to achieve success. Good luck!

HOW CAN I CRACK GPAT EXAM?

Cracking the GPAT (Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test) requires a combination of knowledge, strategy, and practice. Here are some tips to help you crack the GPAT exam:

1. Understand the exam pattern and syllabus: Start by understanding the GPAT exam pattern, the number of questions, the time allotted for each section, and the marking scheme. Also, go through the GPAT syllabus and focus on the topics that carry more weightage.

2. Study regularly: Make it a habit to study regularly and cover the topics taught in class. This will help you to understand the concepts better and retain the knowledge for a longer period.

3. Read standard textbooks: Read standard textbooks recommended by your professors to understand the concepts in-depth. You can also refer to other reference books and study materials for more clarity.

4. Take notes: Make notes of important concepts, formulas, and definitions to revise them quickly during the last minute of the exam.

5. Practice previous year question papers: Practice previous year question papers to get an idea about the type of questions asked in the exam. This will also help you to identify your weak areas and focus on improving them.

6. Take mock tests: Taking mock tests will help you to assess your preparation level and identify areas where you need more practice. Analyze your performance in mock tests and work on improving your speed and accuracy.

7. Time management: Manage your time efficiently during the exam and attempt the easy questions first. This will help you to maximize your score and avoid leaving any question unanswered.

8. Stay calm: Stay calm and composed during the exam and do not panic if you face difficult questions. Remember to read the questions carefully and understand them before attempting to answer.

9. Stay motivated: Stay motivated throughout your preparation and keep reminding yourself of your goals. Stay positive and believe in yourself.

Remember that cracking the GPAT is a journey that requires consistent effort and dedication. Keep practicing and stay focused on your goal, and you will be able to achieve success. Good luck!

PREVIOUS YEAR GPAT CUT-OFF (2019, 2020, 2021)

GPAT Cutoff 2021:

• General category: 220
• EWS category: 196
• OBC-NCL category: 176
• SC category: 159
• ST category: 136
• PwD category: 95

GPAT Cutoff 2020:

• General category: 163
• EWS category: 131
• OBC-NCL category: 131
• SC category: 103
• ST category: 76
• PwD category: 74

GPAT Cutoff 2019:

• General category: 141
• OBC-NCL category: 117
• SC category: 95
• ST category: 74

Please note that the cutoff scores may vary every year depending on various factors such as the difficulty level of the exam, the number of candidates appearing for the exam, and the number of seats available for admission.

COLLEGES UNDER NIPER:

NIPER stands for National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research. It is an autonomous institute under the Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Government of India.

There are currently seven NIPERs in India, located in different states:

1. NIPER Ahmedabad - Gujarat
2. NIPER Guwahati - Assam
3. NIPER Hajipur - Bihar
4. NIPER Hyderabad - Telangana
5. NIPER Kolkata - West Bengal
6. NIPER Raebareli - Uttar Pradesh
7. NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) - Punjab

All these institutes offer various courses in pharmaceutical sciences including Masters, PhD, and Post-Doctoral programs in different specializations.

ELIGIBILITY FOR NIPER EXAM:

The eligibility criteria for NIPER can vary depending on the course and institute. Generally, the following are the minimum eligibility requirements for admission to NIPER:

For Master's programs:

• Candidates should have a Bachelor's degree in Pharmacy or related fields with a minimum of 55% marks (50% for SC/ST/PwD candidates) or equivalent CGPA.
• Candidates who have appeared or are appearing for the final year of the qualifying examination are also eligible to apply, provided their results are declared before the commencement of the NIPER program.

For PhD programs:

• Candidates should have a Master's degree in Pharmacy or related fields with a minimum of 60% marks (55% for SC/ST/PwD candidates) or equivalent CGPA.
• Candidates who have a valid GATE/GPAT/NET score are preferred.

It is important to note that eligibility criteria may vary based on the program and institute. Candidates are advised to check the official website of the respective NIPER institute for detailed eligibility criteria and admission process.

CUT-OFF FOR NIPER:

The cutoff for NIPER entrance exams can vary from year to year and also depends on the number of seats available and the number of candidates who appeared for the exam. Here are the cutoffs for the last three years for the Master's program of NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali):

NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) Master's Program Cutoff:

• 2021: 146 marks (out of 200)
• 2020: 138 marks (out of 200)
• 2019: 141 marks (out of 200)

It is important to note that the cutoff marks for each NIPER institute can vary and the above-mentioned cutoff marks are for the Master's program of NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) only. Also, the cutoff marks can vary based on the difficulty level of the exam, the number of candidates who appeared for the exam, the number of available seats, and the category of the candidate.

EXAM DATE FOR NIPER:

The exam date for NIPER entrance exams can vary depending on the institute and the program. The entrance exam for the Master's program is usually conducted in June or July, while the exam for the PhD program is usually conducted in December or January.

Here are the tentative exam dates for NIPER entrance exams:

• NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) Master's program: Last week of June or first week of July
• NIPER S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) PhD program: Last week of December or first week of January

It is important to note that these are tentative dates and can vary depending on the institute and program. Candidates are advised to check the official website of the respective NIPER institute for the latest information on exam dates and other important dates related to the admission process.

The exam will be conducted on 23^rd june,2023. Last date for online application is 16^th may, 2023. Date of commencement of online application has started from 17^th april, 2023. Tentative date for declaration of result is 30^th june, 2023.

GPAT 2023 ADMIT CARD RELEASED:

The National Testing Agency (NTA) has announced the GPAT (Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test) 2023 exam date, which is scheduled to take place on May 22^nd, 2023. Aspiring candidates can expect the release of the GPAT 2023 Admit Card in April 2023. The GPAT exam is conducted annually by NTA at a national level to facilitate admission to postgraduate pharmacy courses (M.Pharma) for the Academic Session 2023-23. Qualifying the GPAT exam enables candidates to secure admission to various participating pharmacy Institutes across the country.

EXAM PATTERN FOR NIPER:

The pattern for NIPER entrance exams can vary depending on the institute and program. However, the general pattern for the Master's program entrance exam is as follows:

• Mode of Exam: Computer-based test (CBT)
• Duration of Exam: 2 hours
• Type of Questions: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
• Number of Questions: 200
• Total Marks: 200
• Marking Scheme: Each correct answer is awarded 1 mark, and there is no negative marking for incorrect answers.
• Syllabus: The syllabus for the entrance exam usually covers subjects such as Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmacology, Pharmacognosy, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Pharmaceutics, and Biotechnology.

The pattern for the PhD entrance exam can also be similar but may have fewer questions and a shorter duration. It is important to note that the pattern for each NIPER entrance exam can vary and candidates are advised to check the official website of the respective NIPER institute for the latest information on the exam pattern and syllabus.

FORM FOR REGISTRATION DETAILS OF NIPER:

The registration for NIPER entrance exams can be done online through the official website of the respective NIPER institute. Here are the general steps for registration:

1. Visit the official website of the NIPER institute where you wish to apply.
2. Look for the link for online registration and click on it.
3. Fill in the required details such as personal information, educational qualifications, and contact information.
4. Upload scanned copies of your photograph, signature, and other necessary documents.
5. Pay the application fee through the available payment modes (online or offline).
6. Submit the application form and take a printout of the confirmation page for future reference.

It is important to note that the exact registration process and application fee can vary depending on the NIPER institute and program. Candidates are advised to carefully read the instructions provided on the official website before filling out the application form.

SCORING TOPICS IN GPAT:

Pharmacology

Drug classification, Mechanism of action, , etc  (Mostly you can follow: Anticancer, Antibiotics, Antifungal, Antiprotozoal, Cardiovascular Drugs), Adverse effect- related with a name like Gray baby syndrome, Diuretics, CNS depression, Antihistamines.

Pharmaceutics

Capsule, Parenterals, Surfactant, Carr’s index, Hausner ratio, Angle of repose, Emulsion, Fick’s law, Tablet ( Mostly Coating, instrument, and excipients), Zeta Potentials, Preservatives, artificial sweetener  dose calculation sums elf-life and half-life, vol of distribution & plasma conc, rate of clearance, one and two-compartment model sums, AUC- Dose fraction -as i.v or oral; Bioavailability calculation, Rheology (Nonnewtonian’s flow) HLB Values.

Organic Chemistry 

Newman and sawhorse projection, Aldol Condensation, Baeyer-Villiger, Claisen Condensation, Cannizzaro reaction, IUPAC (Bicyclo, Spiro, and heterocyclic compounds), Name reaction ( Diels- Alder Reaction, Knoevenagel, Optical and Geometrical isomerism. R, S / E Z, /Conformational isomerism, Reimer Tiemann, Pericyclic reaction. 

Analytical Chemistry

Vibration range for different grs); IR( Sampling technique, molecular vibration, NMR (No of signal calculation, Chemical shift), Mass Spectroscopy (types of peak,  use) Gas chromatography (Detectors, Use), Woodward-Fieser Rule, HPLC ( Instrumentation, use); Lambert’s Law-Beer’s law, UV Absorption Band & shift.

Medicinal Chemistry

Drug classification of  (Sedative hypnotics, Antibiotics, Antimalarial, Morphin, Antihistaminic); SAR (Mostly Diuretics, BZDs, Morphin); IUPAC Name of Steroidal drugs, Synthesis ( Thiazide Diuretics, Phenothiazine, Quinine, BZDS, Antihistaminic ).

Pharmacognosy 

Chemical constituents & use of Ergot, Nux Vomica, Microscopic Character (Senna, Digitalis, Aloe, Clove, Cardamom, Cinnamon, Belladonna, Vinca); Belladonna, Clove, Kurchi, Vasaka, Digitalis, Biosynthesis Pathway, Tissue Culture, Chemical test (glycoside and alkaloids most important),   Sources of Drugs; Classification of Drugs; Opium, Senna, Aloe, Clove, Cardamom, Cassia, Cinnamon, Ispaghula, Peru & Tolu balsam, Myrobalan, Arjuna, Asafoetida, Pale &black catechu.

WHAT ARE ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME?

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are medications that helps to loosen up the arteries and veins to the lower blood pressure which inhibitors avoid an enzyme in the body from producing angiotensin II, a substance that narrows blood vessels. Angiotensin II also releases hormones that boost blood pressure. Signal of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are diabetic nephropathy, evolving myocardial infarction, scleroderma crisis (Scleroderma renal crisis is a life-threatening complication of scleroderma and presents with the abrupt onset of severe hypertension accompanied by rapidly progressive renal failure, congestive heart failure, and/or microangiopathic hemolytic anemia) hypertensive encephalopathy. In Pregnant women angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are contraindicated.

WHAT IS DIURETICS?

A diuretic is any substance that improves diuresis, the expanded production of urine. Low dose therapy with the category of antihypertensive drugs has been found to be more helpful in the long-term than high dose therapy with the diuretics drugs. Diuretics causes the kidneys to make urine and helps the body to get rid of extra fluid and salt. They are used to treat high blood pressure, edema (extra fluid in the tissues), and other conditions. Diuretics acting on the ascending limb of the loop of Henle are the most efficacious in developing salt and water excretion because the reabsorptive capacity of the segments distal to it is limited. A high ceiling diuretic ethacrynic acid is practically not used because it is more ototoxic, it causes diarrhoea and gut bleeding and its response increases steeply over a narrow dose range. Hydroflumethiazide diuretic reduces positive free water clearance but does not affect negative free water clearance. At equi natriuretic doses acetazolamide diuretic causes the maximum K⁺ loss. the Primary mechanism by which antidiuretic hormone reduces urine volume is increased water permeability of collecting duct cells.

WHAT IS NIFEDIPINE?

Nifedipine are soft gelatin capsule calcium channel blocker that should not be used in patients with ischaemic heart disease. It is most likely to produce tachycardia as a side effect. The cardiac response to verapamil and nifedipine in human subjects are that verapamil causes bradycardia while nifedipine causes tachycardia. The functions of Nifedipine are it can inhibit insulin release from pancreas it can aggravate urine voiding difficulty in elderly males with prostatic hypertrophy and at high doses it can paradoxically increase the frequency of angina pectoris. The antihypertensive action of calcium channel blockers is characterized by lack of central side effects, no compromise of male sexual function and Safety in peripheral vascular diseases. Higher incidence of myocardial infarction and increased mortality has been noted with the use of the nifedipine antihypertensive drug. The long acting calcium channel blocking drugs as antihypertensives are as effective as diuretics or β blockers in reducing cardiovascular/total mortality. Short acting nifedipine formulation is not recommended now for treatment of hypertension because it tends to increase heart rate and cardiac work, it invokes pronounced reflex sympathetic discharges and It can impair haemodynamics in patients with diastolic dysfunction. Use of sublingual/oral nifedipine soft gelatin capsule for rapid BP lowering in hypertensive urgency has been discarded because of inability to control the rate and extent of fall in BP and reports of adverse/fatal outcome. Sublingual/oral nifedipine has been abandoned  for rapid lowering of BP in hypertensive urgency/emergency.

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTINUOUS RELEASE SYSTEMS?

The characteristics of continuous release systems is that they prolong their residence in the GIT and release. Prolonged their residence in the GIT and release is the characteristic of delayed transit and continuous release systems.

WHAT IS EMULSIONS?

Mixture of two or more liquids( oil and water) in which one is present as droplets, of microscopic or ultramicroscopic size, distributed throughout the other is known as emulsions. Types of emulsions are:

i) Oil in water (O/W): The example for o/w emulsion is milk. 

ii) Water in oil (w/o): The example for w/o emulsions are cold cream, butter, paint, 

O/W emulsions usually show creaming in an upward direction.

The emulsion test is a method used to determine the presence of lipids using wet chemistry.

Conductivity test, Dye test are some of the tests of emulsions, Due solubility test, Fluorescence test, Cobalt chloride test, Formation of creaming, Dilution test..

Multiple emulsions are the complex polydisperse systems where both oil in water and water in oil emulsion exist simultaneously which are stabilized by lipophilic and hydrophilic surfactants respectively.

WHAT IS FICK'S LAWS?

Fick's laws states that the rate at which a molecule moves through a material is corresponding to the concentration gradient i.e. the difference in concentrations between the two ends of the material; and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane.

Diffusion equation:

                      Vgas = D*(P₁-P₂)*A/T

where,

D = diffusion coefficient

(P1-P2) = partial pressure gradient

A = surface area

T = thickness of barrier

WHAT ARE HLB VALUE?

The higher the HLB number(scale image), the more Hydrophilic the surfactant is. 15–18 is the HLB value for solubilizing agents. 8–16 is the HLB value for O/W emulsifier. 7–9 is the HLB value for wetting agents. 3-6 is the HLB value for W/O emulsifiers.

Calculation of HLB value:

• HLB values of surfactants based on polyhydric alcohol fatty acid esters such as sorbitan monooleate, glyceryl monostearate and polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate may be estimated as HLB = 20(1-S/A) where, s =saponification number of the ester and a =a acid number of the acid.
• For materials whose hydrophilic region is polyoxyethylene, the HLB value is calculated as HLB = Ɛ (hydrophilic group numbers) − Ɛ (lipophilic group numbers) + 7.

WHAT IS BUFFER SYSTEM?

A buffer system is a solution that can refuse pH changes when short amounts of an acid or base are added to it.Types of buffer solution:

• Acidic buffer
• Basic buffer

For acidic buffers pH is lower than 7.

For basic buffers pH is more than 7.

pH of a basic buffer = pKa – log ([salt]/[acid]).

Buffer capacity (β) is defined as the moles of an acid or base necessary to change the pH of a solution by 1, divided by the pH change and the volume of the buffer in liters. 

Histidine is the most effective contributor of protein buffers. A buffer shows its maximum buffer capacity when pH = pKa. Borate buffer is not used systematically but used in ophthalmic preparation. NH4  is a conjugate acid in the (NH4OH + NH4Cl) buffer system.

WHAT IS ZETA POTENTIAL?

A physical property that is exhibited by any particle in suspension, macromolecule or material surface is known as Zeta potential. The value of zeta potential will decrease when electrolyte is added. Maximum sedimentation volume is obtained when the zeta potential is zero. Zeta potential is a measure of the magnitude of the electrostatic repulsion or attraction between particles dispersed in a liquid medium. It is a surface charge that exists on colloidal particles in solution, and it determines the stability of these particles. Zeta potential is determined by measuring the potential difference between the surface of the particle and the surrounding liquid medium. A high zeta potential value indicates that there is a strong repulsion between particles, which prevents them from aggregating or coalescing. Conversely, a low zeta potential value indicates that there is a weak repulsion or even attraction between particles, which can lead to particle aggregation and ultimately, destabilization of the dispersion. Zeta potential is an important parameter in the formulation of many industrial products, including foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.

WHAT IS ANGLE OF REPOSE?

The angle that the plane of connection between two bodies makes with the horizontal when the upper body is just on the point of sliding is known as angle of repose. Granules with a rough surface will have a high angle of repose.

Formula for angle of repose:

                                               𝝧 = tan-1 h/r

where,

𝝧 = angle of repose

h = is the height in (cm)

r = is the radius in (cm)

Flow property based on angle of repose:

                                      Flow property                  Angle of repose (in degree)

                                         Excellent                              25-30

                                         Good                                    31-35

                                      Fair- aid not needed             36-40

                                      Passable- may hang up       41-45

                                     Poor- must agitate, vibrate   46-55

                                      Very poor                              56-65

                                      Very, very poor                      >66

WHAT IS AN IR?

The band width in IR Increases due to H bonding. Homo molecular molecules are IR inactive because the dipole moment does not change during vibration. FT IR instrument contains monochromator, gratings are covering entire IR range and Quartz made prism acts as monochromator. Conjugation of C=C with C=O lower the frequency of C=O bond in the IR spectrum. In IR, a pyroelectric detector is constructed from triglycine sulphate. Gratings are generally preferred over prisms for dispersive IR because better resolution is possible, linear dispersion is achieved and gratings are resistant to attack by water. The grating in the IR spectrophotometer is made up of alkyl halides. The most commonly used mulling reagent in IR is nujol. 800 nm–2.5 μm wavelength regions are used for near IR. The wavelength of mid-IR is 4000–25000 nm. Hooke's law is associated with IR. IR photo conducting detectors can be constructed from lead sulfide, lead telluride and mercury cadmium telluride. Interference is the basic principle of FT-IR.  Polystyrene is used in calibration of IR instruments.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY IR RADIATION?

For calibration of wavenumber scale in IR polystyrene film is used. For obtaining IR radiation nernst filament should be heated to 1000–1800 °C. Asymmetric stretch requires the most energy in IR. Lasers are nowadays used as radiation source in visible and IR regions because it emits highly monochromatic light, emits coherent light and little or no spreading of radiation as it propagates. SiC rod heated to a high temperature is used as source of light in IR. The IR spectrum of an organic liquid can be taken by placing it between a pair of polished plates which is made of NaCl and KBr.  Pressed disk techniques for the sample preparation in IR involve the use of KBr. Oxygen–hydrogen bonds show the strongest absorption in the IR.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY IR SPECTROSCOPY?

CO₂ is not identified by IR spectroscopy because CO₂ has no dipole moment although C=O is polar. Mostly used region for IR spectroscopy is Mid-IR. Thermal detectors that are used in IR spectroscopy are thermocouple, bolometer and golay pneumatic detectors. IR spectroscopy is generally used to determine the functional group. The solvent used in IR spectroscopy are chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulfide. C–H stretching of aldehyde In IR spectra is 2850–2750 cm^–1. CS₂ or CCl₄ solvent is normally used in IR spectroscopy.  Prism coated with NaCl will be used for IR spectroscopy.  % T vs wave number is the normally graph plotted in IR spectroscopy. In IR Spectroscopy the changes in electronic energy is always associated with charges in vibrational, rotational and translational.  Tungsten–halogen lamp is most widely used radiation source in visible spectroscopy. Molecule must show change in dipole moment to become IR active in I.R. spectroscopy. Wavelength used in X-ray diffraction spectroscopy is 0.01 to 10 nm.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY IR SPECTRA?

In IR spectra, alkyne has a characteristic peak at 2150 cm^-1 in IR spectra –NH₂ with formula C₂H₇N shows 3423 cm^–1 and 3236 cm^–1. Aldehyde: 1740–1720, Amide: 1680–1630 and Acid chloride: 1800 are the frequency range (in cm^–1) in IR spectra for different groups containing (–C=O). 1660–1720 is the frequency range (in cm^–1) for the carbonyl group of lactam rings in IR spectra. In IR spectra, alkene have C=C stretching at 1680–1620 cm^–1.  The C=O bond in the IR spectrum of acetic anhydride gives peak at 1760 and 1810 frequency (in cm^–1). 1o alcohol> 2o alcohol> 3o alcohol> phenols is the right frequency (cm^–l) order for O–H bond IR spectrum. In IR spectra, alkyne has characteristic peak at 2150 cm^–1.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY NMR?

NMR signal is obtained in 1,4-dioxane 1 peak. A reference compound used in NMR spectroscopy is trimethylsilane. The delta value for TMS in NMR is 0. Radiofrequency radiation is associated with NMR. Number of NMR signals generated by acetone is 1. The unit of magnetic field strength in NMR is Gauss. The solvent commonly used in NMR IS Carbon tetrachloride. Position of signal in NMR spectrum indicates the electronic environment of each kind of proton. 2,2-dimethy-l,2-silapentane-5-sulfonate is used as an internal reference standard for aqueous solution in NMR.  Intensities in the NMR spectrum indicate the relative number of protons of each kind. Wavelength used in the NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) is 10¹⁰ nm to 10¹² nm. Magic angle NMR is carried out at 54.7 angle. The number of signals in the NMR spectrum indicates the number of different kinds of protons present in different environments. Splitting of signal in the NMR spectrum indicates the number of neighbouring protons present. Allyl alcohol has 5 NMR peaks.  The C13 NMR spectrum of an unknown compound shows 4 absorptions and the H1 NMR spectrum shows 4 absorptions. therefore,

is the unknown compound. DMSO-d6 is a universal solvent in NMR. Presence of electronegative atoms on NMR spectra causes deshielding and downfield. Coupling causes the peaks in 1H NMR spectra to be split Into multiple peaks equal to the number of hydrogen on surrounding atoms, plus one. Environmental effects that occur in NMR are chemical shift and chemical exchange. CH3–CH2–NH2  gives 3 signals in NMR spectroscopy. Benzene gives 1 NMR signal. in the NMR spectrum two peaks are shown by diethyl ether. The radiation source used in NMR spectroscopy is the radiofrequency source transmitter. In NMR studies carbon tetrachloride solvent is used. Cyclobutane has 1 NMR signal. In NMR greater the deshielding of protons, larger the value of δ or smaller value of τ. 2-bromo propene gives 3 NMR signal. Proton NMR is useful for investigating the structure of organic compounds because Hydrogen atoms are found in nearly all organic compounds. CDC_I3, DMSO-d₆ and deuterated benzene are used to record NMR spectra.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY CHROMATOGRAPHY?

The most commonly used detector in liquid chromatography is UV. In anion exchange chromatography counter ion has positive charge. In gel filtration chromatography larger molecules are eluted first. Acetic acid > Ethanol > Acetone > Petroleum ether is the correct order of the retention in a mixture of four compounds in normal phase chromatography. The stationary phase used in gel permeation chromatography is styrene divinylbenzene copolymer. Sephadex is used for exclusion chromatography. The parameter in the elution curve that is proportional to the concentration of a compound in gas chromatographic effluent is the area under the peak. The mobile phase used in ion exchange chromatography is buffer solutions. In reverse phase chromatography least polar compound is most retained. Hexamethyl silane is used to reduce tailing in gas chromatography. In gas chromatography the sample must be in Gas state. In gas chromatography, derivatization is desirable to improve the thermal stability of compounds and introduce a detector oriented tag into the molecule. In size exclusion chromatography styrene is used as a stationary phase.The mobile phase in column chromatography acts as a solvent for sample and developer and as eluent. The separation of components because of distribution of components between two immiscible liquid phases occurs in paper chromatography. In chromatography if column length is constant and the height of the theoretical plate decreases, then Column separation efficiency increases. In chromatography compound X has retention time 10.5 min and peak width is 0.7 min and compound Y has retention time 15.5 min and peak width is 0.4 min then resolution is 9.09. The principle of paper chromatography is Partition. Steroid separation is by paper chromatography the paper used is acetylated paper. In chromatography capacity factor is related to the migration rate of solute. In radial paper a chromatography sample is placed at the centre of the paper. In TLC silica-G is used as coating material ‘G’ means Gypsum and used as a binder. RP-HPLC method contains stationary phase is non-polar and mobile phase is polar.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY WOODWARD-FIESER RULE?

As per Woodward–Fieser rule 244 nm is the absorption maxima (λmax).

As per Woodward–Fieser rule 302 nm is the absorption maxima (λmax).

The Woodward-Fieser rule is a set of empirical rules used to estimate the maximum absorption wavelength of unsaturated organic compounds, such as conjugated ketones, aldehydes, and aromatic compounds. It is based on the principle that the more extended the conjugation system of a molecule, the lower the energy required for electronic transitions and the longer the maximum absorption wavelength. The rule uses a set of parameters, such as the number of conjugated double bonds, the presence of heteroatoms or substituents, and the position of functional groups, to calculate the maximum absorption wavelength of a compound. It is widely used in the fields of organic chemistry, biochemistry, and spectroscopy to predict and interpret the UV-Vis spectra of organic compounds.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY LAMBERT'S LAW-BEER'S LAW?

LAMBERT LAW-BEER LAW states that the amount of energy consumed by a solution is corresponding to the solution's molar absorptivity and the combination of solute. Lambert's law and Beer's law are two different concepts related to the absorption of light by a substance. Lambert's law states that the rate of absorption of light by a material is directly proportional to the thickness of the material and the concentration of the absorbing species present in it. In contrast, Beer's law states that the absorption of light by a substance is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species present in the material and the distance that light travels through the material. Both laws are fundamental principles in the field of spectroscopy, which is the study of the interaction between light and matter.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY CHEMICAL SHIFT IN NMR?

Chemical shift in NMR states the difference between the resonant frequency of the spinning protons and the signal of the reference molecule. Unit of chemical shift is parts per million (ppm). CH₃F has the highest chemical shift (PPM)value. Chemical shift does not depend on applied external magnetic field, Dimensionless and is expressed in ppm. 100 ppm solution = 100 μg/ml.

CAPSULE:- 

Spinning is an important step in the pinhole method of capsule preparation, and it is used for Uniform distribution of gelatin and removing air from the surface of pins. Slugs of powder are filled in capsules by the capsule filling machine Farmatic Model 2000/160. Storage temperature of the capsule shell is 100 deg F. The humidity condition required for the storage of the capsule shell is 12-15% is. Capsule dosage form is not suitable for extremely soluble drugs. Gelatin for hard capsules are obtained from pork skin and bones. For Aqueous liquid Soft gelatin capsules are suitable. The smallest capsule size is 5. During capsule shell formation, the pinhole method differs from the centrifugal method in dipping. Dosator type is a noise free capsule filling machine. The Hoflinger machine is used to fill the thixotropic liquids in a hard gelatin capsule. Moisture content present in hard gelatin capsules is 13.0%-16.0% w/w. Solubility limits for empty capsules in case of water resistance fails to dissolve in water at 20-30°C in 15 min. During manufacturing, Soft gelatin capsules are washed with hexane. The plasticizers in making soft gelatin capsules are used in preparation of 20 to 30 % of wet gel formulation. Syntron vibrator is used to measure the diameter of the capsule. As per IP 20 capsules are taken in a weight variation test. Vehicle used in the soft gelatin capsule (SGC) is PEG. Volume capacity of the ‘000’ size capsule is 1.37 ml. A non-animals gelatin capsule has been developed with pullalan and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Solubility of gelatin capsules is decreased by formalin. Bloom strength of gelatin capsule is directly proportional to solubility of gelatin. Hard gelatin capsule of size 3 will accommodate approximately 0.3 volume in ml. Vacuum drying methods are commonly used in the pharma industry for drying of soft-shell capsules. By addition of sorbitol the shells of soft gelatin capsules made elastic or plastic like. Ratio of dry glycerine to dry gelatine for hard capsules should be 0.4. An isoelectric point for type A gelatin capsule is at pH 9. Disintegration time of hard gelatin capsule is 30 min. Disintegration time of the soft gelatin capsule is 60 min. Size 000 capsule contains 1.37 volume of drug. Acid Solubility of empty capsules dissolved in less than 5 min in 0.5% aq. HCl at 36 to 38°C. Water resistance of empty capsules fails to dissolve in water at 20° to 30° C in 15 min. Typical Fill Weights (mg) 0.70 powder density of size 5 is 90. The Accogel machine fills dry powder in a soft gelatin capsule. Filling of pellets in capsules is done by Rotofil. Filling of liquid in capsules is done by Qualiseal. The storage temperature for soft gelatin capsule shell is 21–24°C. Auger filling, Vibratory principle and dosator principle are the filling principles in the capsule filling machine. Plate process is not continuous for filling of soft gelatin capsules. 5–5000 µm is the approximate particle size of a microcapsule using solvent evaporation. Type A gelatin exhibits an isoelectric point at pH 9. The 3 size of capsule will have 0.30 ml capacity. Capsules size 1 accommodates the highest volume. More alkaline products in soft gel capsules can cause tanning. Empty capsules of gelatin should be handled at 30–45 %RH. Vericap works on the principle of dielectric constant and removes the unfilled capsules. Empty capsule has moisture content in the range of 12 - 15%. Capsules are suitable for moisture sensitivity. Aerogel ills powdered dry solid into a soft gelatine capsule. Rotofil is designed for filling of pellets. Sealing of the capsule is achieved by heating at 37 - 40ºC. Rate limiting step in bioavailability of capsule is disintegration. Valproic acid capsules if chewed will cause irritation of the mouth and throat. capsule size 5 has the smallest capacity. “000” represents capsule size. Sealing of the capsule is achieved by heating at 37 - 40°C. Capsules are suitable for moisture sensitive drugs. For hard gelatin capsules 0.4 : 1 is the ratio of dry glycerin and gelatin. Base adsorption in capsules helps in determining amount of liquid absorbed by a drug. Properties of mixture on which smaller size of capsule will depend is lower base absorption and higher density.

PARENTERAL PRODUCTS:-

Parenteral products are considered to be those sterile drugs and solutions, emulsions and suspensions. Parenteral products are unique from any other type of pharmaceutical dosage because here all products must be sterile, must be free from pyrogenic (endotoxin) contamination and Injectable solutions must be free from visible particulate matter. Advantage of parenterals are administration of unconscious patients, can not take oral administration and are free from pyrogen. Disadvantages of parenterals are requirement of trained personnel for administration, real or psychological pain associated with the injection and is highly risky if any mistake happens at any point. Sublingual is not a parenthetical route of administration. Vehicles used for parenteral formulation are Water, Water-miscible vehicles and Non-aqueous vehicles. The most important Water-miscible vehicles used in parenteral formulation are ethyl alcohol, liquid polyethylene glycol and propylene glycol. The most commonly used complexing agent in parenterals is Cyclodextrins. Concentration of benzalkonium chloride in parenterals is 0.01%. Electrolytes, monosaccharides and disaccharides are the most commonly used tonicity agents in parenterals. The limulus test is a rapid in-vitro method for pyrogen testing in parenterals. A parenteral solution that is preferably administered by hypodermoclysis is lactated potassic saline injection. In parenterals, Water attack test is used for Type -2 glass. For the quality testing of parenteral pyrogen test, total organic content and conductivity test are necessary. Oily solvents used for parenteral are Cotton seed oil, Sesame oil and Ethyl oleate. Bulking agent used for parenteral preparation is Sorbitol.

DISSOLUTION AND CONTROLLED RELEASE SYSTEMS:-

• The characteristic of dissolution controlled release systems is that it has a very slow dissolution rate. The characteristic of matrix dissolution-controlled release systems is that it employs waxes to control the rate of dissolution.

• Hollow systems containing drugs surrounded by a polymer membrane are the characteristics of reservoir devices-controlled release systems.

• Diffusion of the dissolved drug is the characteristic of diffusion-controlled release systems.

First order release system:

• Matrix dissolution controlled release

• Matrix diffusion controlled release

• Sustained release

• Solution

Noyes Whitney Equation;

                                                             dC/dt = k(Cs-Cb)

dC/dt = dissolution rate of the drug,

k = dissolution rate constant, i.e. DA/L (D is the diffusion coefficient, A is the surface area of the solid and L is the diffusion layer thickness).

Cs = concentration of drug in the stagnant layer, and 

Cb = concentration of drug in the bulk of the solution at time t.

Nernst and Brunner incorporated Fick’s first law of diffusion and modified the Noyes-Whitney’s Equation to:

                                                    dC/dt = DAKW/O (Cs-Cb)/Vh  ………….(2)

where,

d = diffusion coefficient of drug

a = surface area of dissolving solid

KW/O = water/oil partition coefficient of drug

v = volume of dissolution medium

h = thickness of stagnant layer

(Cs-Cb) = conc. gradient for diffusion of drugs.

GMP VALIDATION:-

GMP validation is an element of a quality assurance program for a pharmaceutical/biotech product or process. To ensure that the products are absolutely fit for intended use, the company has to demonstrate in a documented form that the processes, methods, tests, activities and equipment they deploy are capable of repeatedly producing the desired product. 

The validity can be established using following studies:

1. Prospective Validation

2. Retrospective Validation

3. Concurrent Validation 

Types of Validation are:

1. Process Validation

2. Cleaning Validation

3. Method Validation

4. Computer System Validation

Life Cycle of GMP Validation are:

1. Validation master plan

2. Validation protocol

3. Execution of validation

4. Validation report

5. SOPs Preparation

HEPARIN:-

Low concentrations of heparin selectively interfere with the intrinsic pathway. Low doses of heparin prolong with activated partial thromboplastin time. Induction of a configurational change in antithrombin III to expose its interacting sites of heparin is essential for inhibition of factor Xa. Functions of heparin are sudden stoppage of continuous heparin therapy causes rebound increase in blood coagulability, high doses of heparin inhibit platelet aggregation and Heparin clears lipemic plasma in vivo but not in vitro. Low molecular weight heparins differ from unfractionated heparin as they selectively inhibit factor Xa, they do not significantly prolong clotting time and they are metabolized slowly and have longer duration of action. The advantages of low molecular weight over unfractionated heparin are less frequent dosing, higher and more consistent subcutaneous bioavailability and laboratory monitoring of response not required. Low dose subcutaneous heparin therapy is indicated for the prevention of leg vein thrombosis in elderly patients undergoing abdominal surgery. Heparin is contraindicated in patients suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis, subacute bacterial endocarditis and large malignant tumours. Protamine sulfate can be used to antagonise the action of heparin in case of overdose. The primary mechanism by which heparin prevents coagulation of blood is facilitation of antithrombin III mediated inhibition of factor Xa and thrombin.

SOURCES OF DRUGS:-

The sources of drugs are:-

1) Biotechnological source - 

Biotechnology is the application of biological processes, organisms, or systems to produce useful products or services. Biotechnology has been used in various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industrial processes. Biotechnological sources refer to the biological materials or organisms used in biotechnology. Here are some examples of biotechnological sources:

1. Microorganisms: Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi are commonly used in biotechnology. They can be used to produce enzymes, antibiotics, vaccines, and other useful products. For example, the bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli) is commonly used to produce insulin for the treatment of diabetes.

2. Plants: Plants are a rich source of biotechnological products. Genetic engineering techniques can be used to modify plants to produce new compounds or enhance existing ones. For example, genetically modified corn can produce a toxin that kills pests, reducing the need for pesticides.

3. Animals: Animals can be used to produce biotechnological products such as vaccines and pharmaceuticals. For example, rabbits can be used to produce antibodies that can be used to treat cancer.

4. Human cells: Human cells are used in biotechnology for the production of vaccines, gene therapy, and tissue engineering. Human cells can also be used to produce proteins for therapeutic use.

5. Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts that can be used in a wide range of biotechnological applications. For example, enzymes can be used to produce biofuels, food additives, and detergents.

6. DNA: DNA is a key biotechnological source that can be manipulated to produce new products or modify existing ones. DNA sequencing and synthesis techniques are used to study genetic diseases and develop new drugs.

In conclusion, biotechnological sources are diverse and include microorganisms, plants, animals, human cells, enzymes, and DNA. Biotechnology has revolutionized various fields by providing new tools and techniques to produce useful products and services. Biotechnological sources have enormous potential to address current and future challenges in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and industry.

2) Microbial source - 

Microorganisms are a diverse group of living organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Microorganisms play a significant role in biotechnology, bioremediation, food production, and medical research. Microbial sources refer to the various microorganisms used in biotechnology and other applications. Here are some examples of microbial sources:

1. Bacteria: Bacteria are one of the most common microbial sources used in biotechnology. They can be used for the production of antibiotics, enzymes, and other bioproducts. For example, Streptomyces species are commonly used to produce antibiotics such as streptomycin and tetracycline.

2. Yeast: Yeast is another commonly used microbial source in biotechnology. Yeast can be used to produce bread, beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. In addition, yeast can also be used to produce enzymes, vaccines, and other bioproducts.

3. Fungi: Fungi are also commonly used as microbial sources in biotechnology. Fungi can be used to produce antibiotics, enzymes, and other bioproducts. For example, Penicillium species are commonly used to produce penicillin.

4. Algae: Algae are a group of microorganisms that can be used as a microbial source in biotechnology. Algae can be used to produce biofuels, food, and other bioproducts. For example, Spirulina is a type of algae that is commonly used as a dietary supplement due to its high protein content.

5. Viruses: Viruses are used in biotechnology for the production of vaccines and other bioproducts. For example, the influenza vaccine is produced by growing the influenza virus in chicken eggs.

6. Archaea: Archaea are a group of microorganisms that can be used as microbial sources in biotechnology. Archaea can be used for the production of enzymes, biofuels, and other bioproducts. For example, Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum is used to produce methane gas.

In conclusion, microbial sources are diverse and include bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae, viruses, and archaea. Microorganisms play a vital role in biotechnology, bioremediation, food production, and medical research. The ability to manipulate microorganisms has provided us with new tools and techniques to address current and future challenges in various fields.

3) Synthetic source - 

Synthetic sources refer to artificially created substances that mimic natural compounds or have entirely novel chemical structures. Synthetic sources are widely used in the biotechnology industry to create new drugs, enzymes, and other biomolecules. Here are some examples of synthetic sources:

1. Peptide synthesis: Peptide synthesis is a common synthetic source used in the production of peptides and proteins. This process involves the chemical synthesis of amino acids, which are then joined together to form a peptide chain. This technique is used in the production of therapeutic peptides such as insulin and growth hormone.

2. DNA synthesis: DNA synthesis is a process that involves the chemical synthesis of DNA molecules. Synthetic DNA is used in gene therapy, DNA sequencing, and other applications. Synthetic DNA is also used to create new proteins and enzymes.

3. Chemical modification of natural compounds: Chemical modification of natural compounds involves the chemical synthesis of novel compounds by modifying the chemical structure of existing natural compounds. This technique is used in the development of new drugs and other bioproducts. For example, the chemical modification of penicillin has led to the development of new antibiotics.

4. Polymer synthesis: Polymer synthesis involves the chemical synthesis of large molecules made up of repeating units. Synthetic polymers are used in various biotechnology applications such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and gene therapy.

5. Combinatorial chemistry: Combinatorial chemistry involves the synthesis of a large number of compounds simultaneously. This technique is used in drug discovery to identify potential drug candidates. Combinatorial chemistry involves the synthesis of large libraries of compounds, which are then screened for their biological activity.

6. Nanoparticle synthesis: Nanoparticle synthesis involves the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are used in various biotechnology applications such as drug delivery, imaging, and biosensing. Synthetic nanoparticles can be designed to have specific properties such as size, shape, and surface charge.

In conclusion, synthetic sources are a valuable tool in biotechnology, providing new compounds and molecules with unique properties and applications. Synthetic sources include peptide synthesis, DNA synthesis, chemical modification of natural compounds, polymer synthesis, combinatorial chemistry, and nanoparticle synthesis. These synthetic sources have been used to develop new drugs, enzymes, and other biomolecules that have revolutionized the field of biotechnology.

4) Animal source - 

Animal sources refer to biological materials derived from animals that are used in various fields, including biotechnology, medicine, and research. Animal sources can be obtained from both domestic and wild animals and include tissues, fluids, and whole organisms. Here are some examples of animal sources:

1. Blood and plasma: Blood and plasma are animal sources used in the production of various biological products such as vaccines, antibodies, and anticoagulants. For example, antivenom for snake bites is produced from horse blood.

2. Milk: Milk is an animal source used in the production of various dairy products. In biotechnology, milk from transgenic animals can be used to produce therapeutic proteins such as clotting factors for hemophilia.

3. Eggs: Eggs are an animal source used in the production of various vaccines, including the influenza vaccine. The virus used to produce the vaccine is grown in chicken eggs.

4. Tissues and organs: Animal tissues and organs are used in medical research and transplant surgeries. For example, heart valves from pigs and cows are used in human heart valve replacement surgeries.

5. Insects: Insects are used in various biotechnology applications, including the production of silk and the development of insect-based proteins. For example, silk from spider webs is being researched for its potential use in medical sutures.

6. Marine animals: Marine animals are used as a source of enzymes, including those used in laundry detergents and in the food industry. For example, the enzyme chymosin, which is used in cheese production, can be extracted from the stomach of calves or genetically engineered bacteria.

In conclusion, animal sources are a vital resource in biotechnology, medicine, and research. Animal sources include blood and plasma, milk, eggs, tissues and organs, insects, and marine animals. These animal sources are used in the production of various bioproducts such as vaccines, antibodies, and therapeutic proteins. The use of animal sources in biotechnology requires strict ethical considerations and regulations to ensure the humane treatment of animals.

5) Minerals -  

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances that have a wide range of applications in biotechnology, medicine, and other fields. They can be found in the earth's crust and are essential to life, playing vital roles in human health and well-being. Here are some examples of minerals and their uses:

1. Calcium: Calcium is an essential mineral that is required for healthy bones and teeth. It is also involved in muscle and nerve function, blood clotting, and hormone secretion. Calcium supplements are commonly used to prevent osteoporosis and other bone-related conditions.

2. Iron: Iron is an essential mineral that is required for the production of hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Iron supplements are commonly used to treat anemia, a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells.

3. Zinc: Zinc is a mineral that is essential for the immune system, wound healing, and cell growth and division. Zinc supplements are commonly used to treat the common cold and other respiratory infections.

4. Copper: Copper is a mineral that is involved in the production of red blood cells, collagen, and other proteins. It is also important for the functioning of the nervous and immune systems. Copper supplements are used to treat copper deficiency and other conditions.

5. Magnesium: Magnesium is a mineral that is involved in many bodily processes, including muscle and nerve function, blood sugar regulation, and bone health. Magnesium supplements are used to treat magnesium deficiency and other conditions.

6. Selenium: Selenium is a mineral that is important for the immune system and thyroid function. Selenium supplements are used to treat selenium deficiency and other conditions.

7. Silicon: Silicon is a mineral that is involved in the formation of bones, cartilage, and connective tissue. It is also important for the health of the skin, hair, and nails. Silicon supplements are used to improve skin, hair, and nail health.

8. Potassium: Potassium is a mineral that is involved in muscle and nerve function, fluid balance, and blood pressure regulation. Potassium supplements are used to treat potassium deficiency and other conditions.

In conclusion, minerals are essential nutrients that are required for various bodily functions. They play vital roles in human health and well-being and have a wide range of applications in biotechnology, medicine, and other fields. Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, selenium, silicon, and potassium. The use of mineral supplements should be carefully monitored to ensure optimal health benefits and to avoid potential side effects.

6) Plant source - 

Plant sources refer to biological materials derived from plants that are used in various fields, including biotechnology, medicine, and research. Plant sources can be obtained from a variety of plant species and include leaves, flowers, roots, and seeds. Here are some examples of plant sources:

1. Medicinal plants: Medicinal plants are used in traditional medicine and have been found to have therapeutic properties. For example, the bark of the willow tree contains salicylic acid, which is the active ingredient in aspirin.

2. Aromatic plants: Aromatic plants are used in the production of essential oils, which are used in perfumes, cosmetics, and other products. For example, lavender oil is used in aromatherapy to promote relaxation.

3. Herbal supplements: Herbal supplements are made from plant extracts and are used for various health benefits. For example, ginkgo biloba is used to improve memory and cognitive function.

4. Food crops: Food crops are plants grown for human consumption and include fruits, vegetables, and grains. For example, soybeans are used to produce tofu and other soy-based products.

5. Industrial crops: Industrial crops are plants grown for non-food purposes, such as the production of biofuels, textiles, and paper products. For example, cotton is used to make clothing and other textiles.

6. Bioactive compounds: Bioactive compounds are plant-derived substances that have therapeutic properties. For example, curcumin, which is found in turmeric, has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

In conclusion, plant sources are a vital resource in biotechnology, medicine, and research. Plant sources include medicinal plants, aromatic plants, herbal supplements, food crops, industrial crops, and bioactive compounds. These plant sources are used for various purposes, including the production of medicines, essential oils, and biofuels. The use of plant sources in biotechnology and medicine requires strict regulations to ensure the safety and efficacy of the products.

PHARMACY:-

Pharmacy is the branch of healthcare that deals with the preparation, dispensing, and proper utilization of drugs. It is a critical part of the healthcare system, responsible for providing patients with the medications they need to treat and manage their illnesses. Pharmacists are highly trained professionals who play a vital role in patient care and safety. In this blog article, we will explore the importance of pharmacy and its various aspects.

The Role of Pharmacists:-

Pharmacists are healthcare professionals who are responsible for ensuring that patients receive the right medication in the right dosage and at the right time. They are also responsible for monitoring patients for potential drug interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications. Pharmacists work closely with other healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses, and other healthcare providers, to ensure that patients receive the best possible care.

Pharmacists are also responsible for ensuring that medications are stored and dispensed properly. This includes ensuring that medications are stored at the correct temperature, that they are not expired, and that they are labeled correctly. Pharmacists must also ensure that patients understand how to take their medications properly and that they are aware of any potential side effects or interactions.

Pharmacy Education and Training

Pharmacists are highly trained professionals who must complete a rigorous education and training program. In most countries, pharmacists are required to hold a degree in pharmacy, which typically takes four to six years to complete. During this time, students learn about the chemical and biological properties of drugs, as well as how drugs interact with the body.

Pharmacy students also learn about the various types of medications, including prescription drugs, over-the-counter medications, and herbal supplements. They learn how to interpret prescriptions, dispense medications, and counsel patients on proper medication use. In addition, pharmacy students receive training in communication, ethics, and business management.

After completing their degree, pharmacists must pass a licensing exam to practice in their chosen country. Some countries also require pharmacists to complete continuing education courses to maintain their license.

Pharmacy Practice Areas

Pharmacy practice encompasses a wide range of areas, including community pharmacy, hospital pharmacy, clinical pharmacy, and specialty pharmacy.

Community pharmacy is the most common type of pharmacy practice. Community pharmacists work in retail pharmacies and provide medication counseling and dispensing services to patients.

Hospital pharmacists work in hospitals and healthcare facilities and are responsible for preparing and dispensing medications to patients. They also work with healthcare providers to develop treatment plans and monitor patient outcomes.

Clinical pharmacists work in a variety of settings, including hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare facilities. They work closely with physicians and other healthcare providers to optimize medication therapy and improve patient outcomes.

Specialty pharmacists work with patients who have complex medical conditions, such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and multiple sclerosis. They are trained to provide specialized medication therapy and counseling services to these patients.

CONCLUSION:-

Pharmacy is a critical part of the healthcare system and plays a vital role in patient care and safety. Pharmacists are highly trained professionals who are responsible for ensuring that patients receive the right medication in the right dosage and at the right time. They work closely with other healthcare providers to optimize medication therapy and improve patient outcomes. Pharmacy practice encompasses a wide range of areas, including community pharmacy, hospital pharmacy, clinical pharmacy, and specialty pharmacy. With their expertise and knowledge, pharmacists are essential to the delivery of safe and effective healthcare.

DRUG CLASSIFICATION OF SEDATIVE HYPNOTICS:-

Sedative hypnotics are a class of drugs that are used primarily for their calming and sleep-inducing effects. They are often prescribed to treat insomnia, anxiety, and other sleep-related disorders. Sedative hypnotics are typically classified into two major groups based on their chemical structure and mechanism of action:

1. Benzodiazepines - Examples of benzodiazepines include alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), diazepam (Valium), and temazepam (Restoril). These drugs work by enhancing the effects of a neurotransmitter called GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), which helps to calm the nervous system.

2. Non-benzodiazepine hypnotics - This group includes drugs such as zolpidem (Ambien), zaleplon (Sonata), and eszopiclone (Lunesta). These drugs work by selectively targeting certain receptors in the brain that help to induce sleep.

It's worth noting that sedative hypnotics have the potential for abuse and dependence, particularly benzodiazepines. As such, they are classified as controlled substances and are only available with a prescription from a licensed healthcare provider.

DRUG CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS:-

Antibiotics are a class of drugs that are used to treat bacterial infections. They are classified into different groups based on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, and spectrum of activity. Here are some common classifications of antibiotics:

1. Penicillins - Examples of penicillins include amoxicillin, ampicillin, and penicillin. They work by interfering with the bacteria's cell wall synthesis, leading to cell death.

2. Cephalosporins - Examples of cephalosporins include cephalexin, ceftriaxone, and cefazolin. They work similarly to penicillins by interfering with bacterial cell wall synthesis.

3. Macrolides - Examples of macrolides include erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin. They work by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis.

4. Tetracyclines - Examples of tetracyclines include doxycycline and tetracycline. They work by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis.

5. Aminoglycosides - Examples of aminoglycosides include gentamicin, tobramycin, and amikacin. They work by binding to bacterial ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis.

6. Fluoroquinolones - Examples of fluoroquinolones include ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin. They work by inhibiting bacterial DNA synthesis.

It's important to note that antibiotics only work against bacterial infections and are not effective against viral infections. Additionally, overuse and misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which is a growing concern in public health. Therefore, it is crucial to use antibiotics only when necessary and as directed by a healthcare provider.

DRUG CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIMALARIAL:-

Antimalarials are a class of drugs that are used to treat and prevent malaria, a disease caused by a parasite transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes. Antimalarials are classified into different groups based on their chemical structure and mechanism of action. Here are some common classifications of antimalarial drugs:

1. Chloroquine and related compounds - Examples of chloroquine and related compounds include hydroxychloroquine and mefloquine. They work by interfering with the parasite's ability to break down and use hemoglobin.

2. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) - Examples of ACTs include artemether-lumefantrine, artesunate-mefloquine, and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine. They work by targeting the parasite during its asexual replication phase.

3. Aminoquinolines - Examples of aminoquinolines include primaquine and tafenoquine. They work by killing the parasite in its dormant liver stage, preventing relapses of the disease.

4. Antifolate drugs - Examples of antifolate drugs include pyrimethamine, proguanil, and sulfadoxine. They work by inhibiting the parasite's ability to use folate, a vitamin essential for its survival.

It's important to note that antimalarials should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as some of them can have serious side effects and can interact with other medications. Additionally, the emergence of drug-resistant strains of malaria parasites is a growing concern, highlighting the importance of continued research and development of new antimalarial drugs.

DRUG CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHIN:-

Morphine is a powerful narcotic pain reliever that is used to treat severe pain. It belongs to the class of drugs known as opioids, which are derived from opium, a substance extracted from the poppy plant. Opioids are classified as controlled substances due to their high potential for abuse and dependence.

Morphine is classified as a Schedule II controlled substance in the United States, which means it has a high potential for abuse and can lead to severe physical and psychological dependence. Other opioids in the same class include fentanyl, oxycodone, and hydromorphone.

Opioids work by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord, called opioid receptors, which are involved in the regulation of pain, reward, and other physiological functions. By binding to these receptors, opioids can reduce the perception of pain and produce feelings of euphoria and relaxation.

It's important to note that opioids can also cause a range of side effects, including drowsiness, nausea, constipation, respiratory depression, and confusion. They should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare provider and for a limited time, as long-term use can lead to tolerance, dependence, and addiction.

DRUG CLASSIFICATION OF ANTITHISTAMINIC:-

Antihistamines are a class of drugs that are used to treat various allergy symptoms, such as itching, sneezing, runny nose, and hives. They are classified into two main types based on their chemical structure and mechanism of action:

1. First-generation antihistamines - Examples of first-generation antihistamines include diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine, and hydroxyzine. They work by blocking the effects of histamine, a chemical released by the body in response to an allergen.

2. Second-generation antihistamines - Examples of second-generation antihistamines include loratadine, cetirizine, and fexofenadine. They work by selectively blocking the H1 receptor, which is responsible for mediating the allergic response.

In addition to their antihistaminic effects, some antihistamines also have other pharmacological properties, such as sedation, antiemetic (anti-nausea) effects, and anticholinergic effects (which can cause dry mouth and constipation).

It's important to note that antihistamines should only be used as directed by a healthcare provider, as they can have side effects and can interact with other medications. Additionally, some antihistamines can cause drowsiness and impair mental and physical abilities, so it's important to avoid activities that require alertness, such as driving, while taking them.

IUPAC NAME OF STEROIDAL DRUGS:-

Steroidal drugs are a class of organic compounds that are structurally related to the steroid nucleus, a four-ring structure composed of three six-membered rings and one five-membered ring. The IUPAC names of steroidal drugs can be quite complex, as they often involve long chains of carbon atoms with various functional groups attached. Here are some examples of IUPAC names for common steroidal drugs:

1. Testosterone - (8R,9S,10R,13S,14S,17S)-17-hydroxy-10,13-dimethyl-1,2,6,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one

2. Prednisone - (8S,9S,10R,13S,14S,17R)-17-hydroxy-17-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-10,13-dimethyl-1,2,6,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthrene-3,11-dione

3. Ethinyl estradiol - (8R,9S,13S,14S,17S)-17-ethynyl-13-methyl-7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16-octahydro-6H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthrene-3,17-diol

It's important to note that the IUPAC name of a steroidal drug can vary depending on the specific functional groups attached to the steroid nucleus, and there may be multiple names that can be used to describe the same compound.

MOLECULAR VIBRATION:-

Molecular vibration refers to the periodic motion of the atoms within a molecule around their equilibrium positions. This motion is driven by the thermal energy of the molecule and can be characterized by the vibrational energy levels of the molecule, which are quantized based on the frequencies of the vibrations.

Molecules can undergo a variety of vibrational modes, depending on their geometry and the number of atoms in the molecule. The most common types of molecular vibrations are stretching and bending vibrations, which involve the stretching or bending of chemical bonds between atoms within the molecule. Other vibrational modes include twisting, rocking, and wagging.

The vibrational properties of a molecule can be probed using a variety of spectroscopic techniques, including infrared (IR) spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. These techniques allow researchers to measure the vibrational frequencies and energy levels of a molecule, which can provide information about the molecule's structure, bonding, and functional groups.

Molecular vibrations play an important role in many chemical and biological processes, including chemical reactions, protein folding, and DNA replication. Understanding the vibrational properties of molecules is therefore crucial for advancing our understanding of the fundamental processes that govern the behavior of matter at the molecular level.

MASS SPECTROMETRY:-

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ions in a sample. It involves ionizing molecules to create charged particles, which are then separated based on their m/z ratios and detected by a mass spectrometer.

The basic components of a mass spectrometer include an ion source, a mass analyzer, and a detector. In the ion source, molecules are ionized by a variety of techniques, such as electron ionization (EI), electrospray ionization (ESI), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), or atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI).

The ions are then introduced into the mass analyzer, which separates them based on their m/z ratios. The most common types of mass analyzers are quadrupole, time-of-flight (TOF), ion trap, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) analyzers.

Finally, the separated ions are detected by a detector, which records their m/z ratios and intensities. The resulting mass spectrum can be used to identify the molecular weight, composition, and structure of the molecules in the sample.

Mass spectrometry has a wide range of applications in chemistry, biology, and medicine. It is commonly used in proteomics to identify and quantify proteins in complex mixtures, in metabolomics to identify and quantify metabolites, and in drug discovery to identify potential drug candidates.

Overall, mass spectrometry is a highly versatile technique that provides valuable information about the chemical and physical properties of molecules, making it an essential tool in many areas of scientific research.

TYPES OF PEAK IN MASS SPECTROMETRY:-

Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique that is used to identify the chemical composition of a sample based on the mass-to-charge ratio of its constituent molecules. In a mass spectrum, several types of peaks can be observed, including:

1. Molecular ion (M+) peak: This peak corresponds to the mass-to-charge ratio of the molecular ion, which is the parent molecule that has lost an electron to form a positively charged ion.

2. Fragment ion peaks: These peaks correspond to the mass-to-charge ratios of smaller fragments that are produced when the molecular ion undergoes fragmentation, typically by breaking one or more chemical bonds. Fragment ions can provide information about the structure of the molecule, as different types of fragmentation can occur depending on the functional groups and bonding patterns within the molecule.

3. Isotopic peaks: These peaks correspond to the mass-to-charge ratios of isotopes of the elements that are present in the sample. Isotopic peaks are typically observed as a series of closely spaced peaks that differ by one mass unit, due to the presence of different isotopes of the same element.

4. Adduct ion peaks: These peaks correspond to ions formed by the addition of another molecule or ion to the original molecule. Adduct ion peaks can arise from the presence of contaminants or from the ionization process itself.

5. Solvent peaks: These peaks correspond to ions or fragments that arise from the solvent used in the ionization process. Solvent peaks can be used to identify the type of solvent used, which can be useful in determining the conditions under which the sample was prepared or analyzed.

By analyzing the different types of peaks in a mass spectrum, researchers can obtain information about the composition, structure, and properties of the molecules in the sample.

USES OF MASS SPECTROMETRY:-

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical technique that is used in a wide range of fields, including chemistry, biology, environmental science, materials science, and forensic science. Some of the main uses of mass spectrometry are:

1. Identification of unknown compounds: Mass spectrometry can be used to identify unknown compounds by comparing their mass spectra to a database of known spectra.

2. Quantification of compounds: Mass spectrometry can be used to measure the concentrations of compounds in a sample, such as drugs in blood or pesticides in food.

3. Characterization of complex mixtures: Mass spectrometry can be used to identify and quantify the components of complex mixtures, such as proteins in a biological sample or pollutants in environmental samples.

4. Structural analysis of molecules: Mass spectrometry can be used to determine the molecular structure of compounds, such as the sequence of amino acids in a protein or the arrangement of atoms in a synthetic molecule.

5. Analysis of isotopes: Mass spectrometry can be used to measure the isotopic composition of a sample, which can provide information about the origin and history of the sample.

6. Drug discovery: Mass spectrometry can be used in drug discovery to identify and characterize potential drug candidates and to study the metabolism of drugs in the body.

7. Forensic analysis: Mass spectrometry can be used in forensic analysis to identify drugs, explosives, and other compounds in crime scenes.

Overall, mass spectrometry is a versatile and powerful technique that provides valuable information about the chemical and physical properties of molecules, making it an essential tool in many areas of scientific research and practical applications.

DETECTORS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:-

Gas chromatography (GC) is a widely used analytical technique for separating and analyzing the components of a mixture. GC involves passing a sample through a column that is packed with a stationary phase and a carrier gas that carries the sample components through the column. The components of the sample are separated based on their affinity for the stationary phase, and the separated components are detected by a detector. There are several types of detectors used in GC, including:

1. Flame Ionization Detector (FID): This is the most widely used detector in GC. It detects organic compounds that are ionized by a hydrogen flame. The ions produced in the flame are collected and measured, providing a signal that is proportional to the amount of the compound present in the sample.

2. Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD): This detector measures the thermal conductivity of the carrier gas as it passes through the column. When a sample component elutes from the column, it changes the thermal conductivity of the carrier gas, producing a signal that is proportional to the amount of the component present in the sample.

3. Electron Capture Detector (ECD): This detector is sensitive to compounds that contain electronegative elements, such as halogens and nitro groups. When a compound elutes from the column, it captures electrons from a radioactive source, producing a signal that is proportional to the amount of the compound present in the sample.

4. Mass Spectrometry Detector (MSD): This detector combines the separation power of GC with the mass analysis capability of mass spectrometry. It provides high sensitivity and selectivity, allowing for the identification of unknown compounds in a sample.

5. Flame Photometric Detector (FPD): This detector is used for the analysis of sulfur and phosphorus-containing compounds. It detects these compounds by measuring the intensity of light emitted by a flame when the compounds are burned.

Overall, the choice of detector depends on the specific application and the type of compounds being analyzed. The sensitivity, selectivity, and cost of the detector are important considerations when selecting a detector for GC analysis.

USE OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:-

Gas chromatography (GC) is a widely used analytical technique that is used in various fields, including chemistry, biology, forensics, and environmental science. GC is used for the separation and analysis of volatile and semi-volatile compounds present in a sample. Some of the common uses of gas chromatography are:

1. Chemical analysis: GC is used for the analysis of various chemicals, including organic compounds, inorganic compounds, and mixtures of these compounds.

2. Pharmaceutical industry: GC is used in the pharmaceutical industry for the analysis of drug compounds, drug formulations, and drug delivery systems.

3. Food industry: GC is used for the analysis of food samples for the detection of contaminants, additives, and flavor compounds.

4. Environmental analysis: GC is used for the analysis of environmental samples, such as air, water, and soil, for the detection of pollutants and toxins.

5. Forensic science: GC is used for the analysis of forensic samples, such as blood, urine, and hair, for the detection of drugs, toxins, and other substances.

6. Petrochemical industry: GC is used in the petrochemical industry for the analysis of crude oil, petroleum products, and petrochemicals.

7. Quality control: GC is used for the quality control of products, such as pharmaceuticals, food, and beverages.

Overall, gas chromatography is a versatile and powerful technique that provides valuable information about the chemical composition of a sample. Its wide range of applications makes it an essential tool in many areas of scientific research and practical applications.

HPLC INSTRUMENTATION:-

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a powerful analytical technique that is used to separate and analyze components of a sample. The following are the basic components of an HPLC system:

1. Pump: The pump is used to deliver the mobile phase (solvent) to the HPLC column at a constant flow rate.

2. Injector: The injector is used to introduce the sample into the mobile phase. It is usually a syringe that can be manually or automatically injected into the system.

3. Column: The column is the heart of the HPLC system where the separation of the components occurs. It is packed with a stationary phase material that interacts differently with each component of the sample, resulting in the separation of the components.

4. Detector: The detector is used to detect the components that elute from the column. There are different types of detectors, including UV-Vis, fluorescence, refractive index, electrochemical, and mass spectrometry detectors.

5. Data system: The data system collects, analyzes, and displays the results obtained from the detector.

6. Solvent reservoirs: The solvent reservoirs hold the mobile phase or solvent used for the separation.

7. Tubing and fittings: These are used to connect the different components of the HPLC system.

8. Oven or thermostat: The oven or thermostat is used to maintain a constant temperature of the column and the mobile phase.

Overall, the performance and sensitivity of the HPLC system depend on the quality of the components and their integration. HPLC systems can be configured in various ways depending on the specific application requirements.

HPLC USE:-

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a widely used analytical technique that is used to separate, identify, and quantify the components of a sample. HPLC has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

1. Pharmaceutical industry: HPLC is used for the analysis of drug compounds, drug formulations, and drug delivery systems. It is used to determine the purity, quality, and quantity of drugs.

2. Environmental analysis: HPLC is used for the analysis of environmental samples, such as air, water, and soil, for the detection of pollutants and toxins.

3. Food industry: HPLC is used for the analysis of food samples for the detection of contaminants, additives, and flavor compounds.

4. Forensic science: HPLC is used for the analysis of forensic samples, such as blood, urine, and hair, for the detection of drugs, toxins, and other substances.

5. Quality control: HPLC is used for the quality control of products, such as pharmaceuticals, food, and beverages.

6. Biotechnology: HPLC is used for the analysis of biological molecules, such as proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.

7. Petrochemical industry: HPLC is used in the petrochemical industry for the analysis of crude oil, petroleum products, and petrochemicals.

Overall, HPLC is a versatile and powerful technique that provides valuable information about the chemical composition of a sample. Its wide range of applications makes it an essential tool in many areas of scientific research and practical applications.

UV ABSORPTION BAND:-

UV (Ultraviolet) absorption bands are regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation. These absorption bands are characterized by a sharp increase in the absorption of light at a specific wavelength, followed by a decrease in absorption as the wavelength increases. The position and intensity of the absorption bands are dependent on the electronic structure and chemical environment of the absorbing molecule.

In organic molecules, the most common UV absorption bands are due to the π→π* and n→π* transitions. The π→π* transition is observed when a photon of light is absorbed by a molecule that promotes an electron from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), which is a π* orbital. This transition results in the absorption of light in the range of 150-300 nm. The n→π* transition occurs when an electron is promoted from a non-bonding (n) orbital to a π* orbital. This transition results in the absorption of light in the range of 180-300 nm.

The UV absorption spectrum of a molecule can provide valuable information about its electronic structure and chemical properties. By analyzing the position and intensity of the absorption bands, it is possible to identify the functional groups present in a molecule and determine the degree of conjugation and the polarity of the molecule. UV absorption spectroscopy is widely used in the fields of chemistry, biochemistry, and materials science for the identification and characterization of molecules and materials.

UV ABSORPTION SHIFT:-

The UV absorption spectrum of a molecule can shift based on a number of factors. The most common factors that can cause a shift in the UV absorption spectrum include:

1. Electronic structure: The position of the absorption band is dependent on the electronic structure of the molecule. Any change in the electronic structure due to the presence of a functional group or a change in the conjugation can shift the absorption band.

2. Solvent: The absorption spectrum can shift depending on the polarity of the solvent used. A more polar solvent can shift the absorption spectrum to higher wavelengths, while a less polar solvent can shift the absorption spectrum to lower wavelengths.

3. pH: The absorption spectrum can shift depending on the pH of the solution. This is because changes in pH can cause changes in the electronic structure of the molecule.

4. Temperature: The absorption spectrum can also shift with changes in temperature. This is because changes in temperature can cause changes in the molecular geometry, which can affect the electronic structure of the molecule.

5. Concentration: The absorption spectrum can also shift depending on the concentration of the molecule. This is because changes in concentration can affect the interactions between the molecules and the solvent, which can in turn affect the electronic structure of the molecule.

Overall, the shift in the UV absorption spectrum can provide valuable information about the electronic structure and chemical properties of a molecule, as well as the environment in which it is present. By analyzing the shift in the absorption spectrum, it is possible to gain insights into the structure and behavior of a molecule in different conditions.

PERICYCLIC REACTION:-

Pericyclic reactions are a class of organic reactions that involve a concerted rearrangement of electrons in a cyclic transition state. These reactions involve the movement of pi-electrons in a cyclic fashion, and they typically proceed with high stereoselectivity and regioselectivity. Pericyclic reactions are characterized by a set of rules known as the Woodward-Hoffmann rules, which provide a framework for predicting the outcome of these reactions based on the molecular orbitals involved.

Pericyclic reactions can be classified into three main types:

1. Cycloaddition reactions: These reactions involve the formation of a cyclic compound from two or more reactants. The most common example of a cycloaddition reaction is the Diels-Alder reaction, which involves the reaction of a diene with a dienophile to form a cyclohexene ring.

2. Electrocyclic reactions: These reactions involve the ring-opening or ring-closing of a conjugated system. Examples of electrocyclic reactions include the thermal ring-opening of cyclobutene to form butadiene, and the ring-closing of hexatriene to form benzene.

3. Sigmatropic rearrangements: These reactions involve the migration of a substituent along a chain of atoms. Examples of sigmatropic rearrangements include the Cope rearrangement, which involves the migration of a group from one end of a conjugated diene to the other end, and the Claisen rearrangement, which involves the migration of a group from one carbon atom to another in an allyl ether.

Pericyclic reactions are important in organic synthesis, as they provide a powerful tool for the construction of complex organic molecules. By understanding the principles of pericyclic reactions and the Woodward-Hoffmann rules, chemists can predict the outcome of these reactions and use them to synthesize a wide range of organic compounds.

BIOSYNTHESIS PATHWAY:-

Biosynthesis pathway refers to the series of chemical reactions that occur within a living organism to produce a specific product or compound. These pathways are essential for the maintenance of life processes and the production of biomolecules needed for cell growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Examples of biosynthesis pathways include:

1. Glycolysis: The process of converting glucose to pyruvate, which is used to generate energy through the electron transport chain.

2. Krebs cycle: Also known as the citric acid cycle, this pathway converts acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, generating ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH and FADH2.

3. Photosynthesis: The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates, using carbon dioxide and water.

4. Fatty acid biosynthesis: The process of synthesizing fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, which are then used to produce membrane lipids, hormones, and energy storage molecules.

5. Protein biosynthesis: The process of synthesizing proteins from amino acids, which involves transcription of DNA into RNA and translation of RNA into protein.

These biosynthesis pathways are tightly regulated by enzymes, hormones, and other signaling molecules to maintain the balance between synthesis and degradation of biomolecules in the cell.

TISSUE CULTURE:-

Tissue culture, also known as cell culture, is the process of growing and maintaining cells, tissues, or organs outside of their natural environment, typically in a laboratory setting. Tissue culture techniques are commonly used in various fields of biology, including cell biology, molecular biology, biotechnology, and medicine.

The basic steps involved in tissue culture include:

1. Collection of tissue sample: The tissue sample is typically collected from a plant or animal using a sterile technique.

2. Disinfection of tissue: The tissue is treated with disinfectants to remove any surface contaminants and sterilize the tissue.

3. Isolation of cells: The tissue is cut into small pieces and the cells are separated using enzymatic or mechanical methods.

4. Cell culture: The isolated cells are then grown in a nutrient-rich medium, which provides the necessary nutrients, growth factors, and hormones required for cell growth and division.

5. Sub-culturing: As the cells grow and divide, they are transferred to new culture vessels, which allows for continued growth and expansion of the cell population.

Tissue culture has numerous applications, including:

1. Study of cellular processes: Tissue culture allows researchers to study cellular processes, such as cell signaling, cell differentiation, and gene expression, in a controlled environment.

2. Production of biopharmaceuticals: Tissue culture is used to produce large quantities of biopharmaceuticals, such as vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and recombinant proteins.

3. Plant breeding: Tissue culture is used in plant breeding to propagate and select desirable plant traits, such as disease resistance and high yield.

4. Medical research: Tissue culture is used in medical research to study disease mechanisms, drug development, and tissue engineering.

Overall, tissue culture has revolutionized the field of biology by providing a powerful tool for studying cells, tissues, and organs outside of their natural environment.

RATE OF CLEARANCE:-

The rate of clearance refers to the rate at which a substance is removed from the body by various elimination processes, such as metabolism, excretion, or biotransformation. The clearance rate of a substance is an important pharmacokinetic parameter that can help determine the appropriate dosing and administration of drugs.

The clearance rate is typically expressed as the volume of blood cleared of the substance per unit of time, such as milliliters per minute or liters per hour. Clearance can be measured by monitoring the concentration of the substance in the blood or urine over time, and then calculating the rate of elimination based on changes in concentration.

There are several factors that can affect the clearance rate of a substance, including:

1. Renal function: The kidneys play a major role in the elimination of many substances, particularly water-soluble drugs and their metabolites. Impaired renal function can result in reduced clearance and increased risk of toxicity.

2. Liver function: The liver is responsible for the metabolism and biotransformation of many drugs, which can affect their clearance rate. Impaired liver function can result in reduced clearance and increased risk of toxicity.

3. Age: Clearance rates may be lower in elderly patients due to reduced organ function and changes in body composition.

4. Genetics: Genetic factors can influence the metabolism and clearance of drugs, leading to individual variations in drug response and toxicity.

Overall, the rate of clearance is an important parameter in pharmacokinetics that helps determine the optimal dosing and administration of drugs to ensure safe and effective treatment.

BIOAVAILABILITY CALCULATION:-

Bioavailability refers to the fraction of a drug that reaches the systemic circulation and is available to produce an effect. It is typically expressed as a percentage of the administered dose, and is influenced by various factors such as the route of administration, drug formulation, and metabolism.

The calculation of bioavailability depends on the method of administration, but a common method for oral drugs is to compare the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of the drug after oral administration (AUCoral) to that of the drug after intravenous administration (AUCiv).

The bioavailability can be calculated using the following formula:

                   Bioavailability (%) = (AUCoral / AUCiv) x 100%

For example, if a drug has an AUCoral of 400 mg•h/L and an AUCiv of 800 mg•h/L, the bioavailability would be:

Bioavailability (%) = (400 / 800) x 100% = 50%

This indicates that only 50% of the orally administered dose reaches the systemic circulation and is available to produce an effect. It is important to note that the calculation of bioavailability can vary depending on the drug and the study design, and other factors such as the variability in drug absorption and metabolism can also influence the actual bioavailability in clinical practice. Therefore, bioavailability should be interpreted in the context of the specific drug and clinical scenario.

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The structure-activity relationship (SAR) of quinolones

Quinolones are synthetic antibacterial drugs that target bacterial DNA synthesis by inhibiting the action of bacterial topoisomerases. They share a common four-ring structure consisting of a fused pyridine and a benzene ring.The structure-activity relationship (SAR) of quinolones is based on the substitution patterns on the quinolone core structure. Functional groups present on the quinolone scaffold can affect the compound's antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties, and toxicity.

Some of the key structural features that contribute to the antibacterial activity of quinolones include:

1.            The presence of a 4-oxo group on the quinolone scaffold: This is a crucial component of the quinolone structure that interacts with the bacterial topoisomerase enzyme and promotes DNA breakage.

2.            The presence of a fluoroquinolone side chain: The addition of a fluoro group at position 6 or 7 of the quinolone ring can enhance the antibacterial activity and increase the spectrum of activity against Gram-negative bacteria.

3.            The presence of a substituent at position 8: The substitution of a bulky group at position 8 can improve the antibacterial activity and reduce the susceptibility to resistance mechanisms.

4.            The presence of a piperazine ring: The addition of a piperazine ring to the quinolone scaffold can enhance the antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria.

Overall, the SAR of quinolones is complex and involves a balance between antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties, and toxicity. By understanding the key structural features that contribute to the activity of quinolones, researchers can design and optimize new.

GPAT 2023 MEMORY BASED QUESTION AND ANSWER?

1) What type of glass is not used for parenteral preparation?

ANS:- IV NP General Sodalime glass

2) What is the Lucas test?

ANS:- To differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.

3) Trastuzumab is a/an
A. EGFR/HER 2 inhibitor
B. Angiogenesis inhibitor
C. EGF Receptor HER inhibitor
D. BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors

ANS:- EGFR/HER 2 inhibitor

4) What is the Schedule for Ophthalmic preparation?

ANS:- Schedule FF.

5) What is the weight of 00 capsules in mg?

ANS:- 120-160 mg.

6) In which resin cinnamic and benzoic acid is present?

ANS:- Balsams resin.

7) Alkaloid Strychnine is present in which of the following?

ANS:- Nux Vomica.

8) What is the family of Isabgol?

ANS:- Plantaginaceae

9) All are true for Metoclopramide EXCEPT
A. 5HT1 receptor antagonist
B. D2 receptor antagonist
C. 5HT3 receptor antagonist
D. 5HT4 receptor agonist

ANS:- 5HT₁ receptor antagonist

10) Name the schedule for disinfectants?

ANS:- Schedule O.

11) All of the following are TNFα inhibitor EXCEPT
A. Etanercept
B. Infliximab
C. Adalimumab
D. Basiliximab

ANS:- Basiliximab

12) Why is Thermogravimetric analysis used for?

ANS:- Determining purity and composition of materials, drying and ignition temperatures of materials and knowing the stability temperatures of compounds.

13) Which metabolite is used to inactivate the vasico-toxic metabolite leading to hemorrhagic cystitis by alkylating agent used in the treatment of cancer
A. Acrolein
B. Aldophosphamide
C. Cyclophosphamide
D. Mesna

ANS:- Mesna

14) What does Schedule M2 deal with?

ANS:- It deals with cosmetics.

15) Identify the drug that is not among the drug recommended as the 1st time drug in the treatment of Partial seizure with or without generalized seizure
A. Carbamazepine
B. Valproate
C. Diazepam
D. Lamotrigine

ANS:- Diazepam

16) When is a NDA made?
A. Once the animal studies are done and drug is declared safe in animals.
B. Once the animal studies are done and drug declared safe and effective in animals study.
C. After the phase III clinical trial.
D. After the phase IV clinical trial.

ANS:- After the phase III clinical trial.

17) Which of the following is a 4^th Generation Cephalosporin?
A. Ceftriaxone
B. Cefaclor
C. Cefuroxime
D. Cefepime

ANS:- Cefepime.

GPAT 2023 MEMORY BASED SELF PRACTICE QUESTION? (FOR ANSWER FOLLOW OUR YOUTUBE CHANNEL) (SHIFT-1)

1) Alzheimer's affect which part of the brain?

2) Tablet separation top to bottom?

3) Variety of products offered by a company ?

4) When to go from try my product to prefer my brand?

5) Excipient used to reduce friction?

6) Process for air and granule drying?

7) What is a coagulation process?

8) What is the orphan drug?

9) Mydriasis without cycloplegia?

10) Nerve for near vision?

11) Transformation, transduction or conjugation

12) Syrup with 50% + particles exhibits which flow

13) About Bhasma and Lehya?

14) Sweetening agent child metals?

15) Which are hydrochloric tincture?

16) Size of very fine particles?

17) Compartment modelling?

(SHIFT-2 FOR ANSWER FOLLOW OUR YOUTUBE CHANNELS)

1) Alkyl group is grignard reagent serve as?

2) He potential of the calomel electrode depends upon?

3) The addition of monobasic potassium phosphate to the suspended bismuth subnitrate particles cause the A TO B owing to the C?

4) Which of the following compound would be expected to have greatest florescence?

5) Conversion of cyclic ketone to ring expended cyclic ester takes place by?

6) Which of the following is not a sulphonomide derivative?

7) When exposed to carbon monoxide, the base pigment of cytochrome P enzymes absorb light at ?

8) Carbohydrates have hydrogen oxygen atom ratio of ?

9) Addition of HBr to 1,3-butadiene at 40 degree celcius yields?

10) Which heterocyclic ring is fused to a steroidal nucleus in danazol?

11) Which of the following factor make carbonyl group in aeyl compounds, too, susceptible to nucleophilic attack?

12) In atomic absorption spectroscopy, background correction performed using a single hollow cathode lamp pulsed first with a low current and then with a high current id called?

13) Phenol reacts with chloroform in presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide to give cheif product?

14) Replacement of the diazonium group by halogen in presence of copper powder is?

15) Which of the following ICH harnnonized tripartite guidelines related to stability, provides the general requirements for stability, testing of new drug substances and products?

16) All the following about back titration are true EXCEPT ?

17) Identify pair of C₄ epimers?

18) ----------- is an example of aromatic nucleophilic substitution reaction

19) Amphetamine undergoes one of the following metabolic reaction to convert to 1-phenyl-2-propanol metabolite via ketone formation?

20) What is the popular common name for a bioactive compound with chemical name of (m-hydroxyphenyl)-trimethyl ammonium methyl sulphate dimethyl carbamate?

21) Which one of the following molecules has a dipole movement?

22) In UV spectrophotometer, lamp used to generate UV spectrum is?

23) Which one of the following is an example of of a chelate?

24) A 2.0 % saline solution is?

25) A C---2 epimer of D glucose is?

26) Which of the following factors affect the heat of reaction based on kirchoff equation?

27) Which of the following is correct order of stability of free radicals?

28) Following statement is correct with respect to voltage sensitive calcium channels?

29) EDTA is an example of?

30) Isoquinoline on treatment with oleum at 90 degree celcius yeilds majorly?

31) Eicosanoids are polyunsaturated fatty acids of ------ carbons.

32) Efficiency of an reversible engine is given by?

33) Noye-Whitney's equation predicts?

34) One of the following drugs is not ment for systemic use

35) Indicate which of the following molecular characteristics will be expected to increase the solubility of a simple solute in an aqueous solution?

36) Which type of in-vitro-in-vivo correlation compares % drug released vs % drug absorbed?

37) Which of the following characteristics is most likely to be associated with a high apparent volume of distribution?

38) Ostwald's dilution law is applicable to?

39) Which among the following is not used as NSAID?

40) Autoimmunity refers to?

41) Ideally BA studies should be carried on --------volunteers.

42) Which of the following is acellular?

43) Given below are two statements, one labelled as assertion (A) and the other labelled as reason (R):

Assertion (A) : In case of salicylic acid ointment BP wool alcohol ointment made with white soft paraffin is used.

Reason (R) : Wool alcohol ointment made with white soft paraffin is used because the medicament is coloured.

In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate answer from the question given.

44) Recombination process in a cell occuring through the mediation of phages is called?

45) In a mechanical model of a viscoelastic material, showing both viscosity of liquid state and elasticity of solid state combined in series is termed as?

46) A clear sweetened hydroalcoholic liquid containing medicament, is known as?

47) The schick test is used to determine susceptibility to?

48) Absorption of vitamin B₁₂ is facilitated by?

49) A sample of glucose was decomposed at 140 degree celcius in a solution containing 0.030 M HCL. the velocity constant, K was found to be 0.0080 hr-1. if the spontaneous rate constant, is 0.0010hr-1, and the catalysis due to hydroxyl ions in this specific solution is considered as negligible, then the catalytic coefficient, KH is?

50) Which of the following equipment is based on the principle of pohlman liquid whistle?

51) Which of the following is the correct choice of particle size measurement technique in scoring order of size?

(a) Sieve

(b) Anderson pipette

(c) Coulter counter

(d) Light scattering 

52) Which one of the following is an example of ointment prepared by trituration and containing liquids and solids?

53) Which of the following drugs does not bind to haemoglobin?

(a) Chlorpromazine

(b) Phenobarbital

(c) Phenothizine

(d) Phenytoin

Choose the appropriate answer

54) Picking is a term used to describe?

55) Enzyme asparaginase is obtained from?

56) Which of these is not a colligative property?

57) Sarong SpA semiautomatic equipment is used for the?

58) Ri Hingers hypothesis relates

(a) Energy used in size reduction

(b) New surface area produced 

(c) Equivalent shape

(d) Reynold's number

59) Given below are two statements:

Statement I: Rubber stoppers cannot withstand pyrogen destructive temperatures.

Statement II:  In case of rubber stopper for injection reliance must be on an effective sequence of washing, thorough rinsing with WFI, prompt sterilization, and protective storage to ensure adequate pyrogen control.

In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate answer.

60) In 1798 edward jenner published his work on---------

61) Conjugation of a drug includes the following except:

62) Absolute solubility does not rely on standard condition of--------
63) Modified lowry's procedure is used to characterize-----------

64) Vanishing cream is an ointment that may be classified as----------

65) In terms of the kinetics, degradation in suspension is----------

66) While preparing the following:

Rx

Salicylic acid : 3g

Sulfur ppt : 7g

lanolin : 10g

White petroleum : 10g

The pharmacist should:

67) The following are adulterants of clove except one, choose the most appropriate option:

68) Unicellular conical, warty trichomes, paracytic stomata, xylem vessels with annular thickening are important microscopical features of which plant-------

69) Sesquiterpenes are biobiosynthesised from---------in plants.

70) The alcohol solution of sudan-III and tincture of alkana are the reagents used for identification of following type of secondary metabolites.

71) Aloe contains--------type of glycosides.

72) Ayurvedic fermented preperation includes.

73) Modified bomtrager's test is used to detect the presence of which type of glycosides

74) Terpene indole alkaloid derived from L-Tryptophan via secologanin is 

75) Chemically volatile oils differ from fixed oils in one of the following characters

76) Which one of the following drug is skeletal muscle relaxant

77) Fight or flight responses are mediated by

78) Which one of the following is an autosomal dominant syndrome in its inheritance?

79) -------- is a protein marker which can be detected within three hours of acute ischemic kidney injury from patient's urine.

80) Which of the following genes responsible for graft rejection in humans?

81) Most common type of megaloblastic anemia caused by malabsorption of vitamin B₁₂ and characterized by decreased production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and a deficiency of intrinsic factor is 

82) Which of the following is not an ACE inhibitor?

83) ------------ activates G- protein gated potassium channel resulting in membrane hyperpolarization.

84) Which among the following statement is correct with respect to their mechanism of antidiabetic action?

85) Prominent biochemical features of grave's disease are

86) Laboratory findings of which one of the following disease include markedly elevated serum amylase levels during the first 24 hours followed by rising serum lipase levels within 72-96 hours?

87) Exenatide is a ------

88) Which of the following is a third generation cephalosporin?

89) Deficiency of --------- enzyme is found in Hers' disease.

90) Para aminohippurie acid (PAH) clearance test is employed to measure

91) Which class of antibody opsonizes antigens for phagocytosis through two different pathways?

92) Anti-rheumatoid drug which is contraindicated in patients with renal and hepatic impairment

93) Which among the following is an amino-alcohol analogue that has weak visceral anticholingeric activity but is a strong nicotinolytic drug

94) Which one of the following interferes with the release of cholinergic neurotransmitter, acetylcholine by the neurons of autonomic nervous system?

95) Which one of the following types of hepatitis can lead to fulminant hepatitis causing massive hepatie cell death more frequently among infected pregnant women, showing third trimester mortality as high as 30%?

96) Phocomelia is caused by

97) Valproate and carbamazepine can be used as first line drugs for the management of following type of seizure

98) Which phase of cell cycle is the shortest phase in terms of time?

99) The more appropriate purpose of spiral scrapper in swenson-walker crystalliser is?

100) Who is the primary source of information for doctors' prescribing behaviour?

101) Schedule O governs the standard for

102) The number of persons elected as the member of the pharmacy council of India from the teaching profession is

103) The fluid flows through the filter medium by virtue of ------

104) The good management principle revolves around the three R's these are --------------

GPAT 2023 CUT-OFF

The GPAT 2023 cutoff is expected to increase this year, based on the expert analysis of the overall moderate difficulty level of the GPAT 2023 question paper. 

The availability of the GPAT 2023 cutoff will be followed by its update on this page.